Three rhesus macaques (1 male, 2 females, 4–6 kg, 8–9 years of age) were tested. Second, differential patterns of age-related neurovascular dysfunction between different brain regions also could bias circuits contained within a lobe to experience comparable physiological consequences associated with poorer vascular health. One study was able to bridge the gap between these cellular data in aged rats and imaging data from older humans by combining ensemble electrophysiological recordings with cell type-specific imaging in the medial temporal lobe of cognitively assessed aging rhesus macaques (27). We estimate that the relative rate of neurogenesis is approximately 10 times less than that reported in the adult rodent dentate gyrus. We do not capture any email address. An important clue to a critical brain change that occurs in aging came from a study that used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to demonstrate that the CA3/dentate gyrus region of the hippocampus is more active in older individuals than in younger adults as they attempt to discriminate increasingly overlapping visual stimuli (15). Recent work utilizing aging macaques provides a perspective on the association between auditory and cognitive function across the lifespan ( 90 ). There will be a particular emphasis on conceptualizing the critical bridge that nonhuman primates provide between behavioral, neuroanatomical, and electrophysiological data obtained in aged rodents and cognitive, psychophysical, and functional imaging data from older humans. New research published today in Neuron takes us a small but important step closer to the answer. Our purpose is to bring all daily monkey activities such as monkey giving birth, cute baby monkeys, monkey playing etc . Sensory functioning and intelligence in old age: A strong connection, The strong connection between sensory and cognitive performance in old age: Not due to sensory acuity reductions operating during cognitive assessment. Finally, animal models help control for generational effects that sometimes influence human aging research (6) since young and aged animals can be exposed to similar testing and living conditions over the course of their lifespans. Aged animals were significantly impaired relative to adult animals at the 600-s delay condition. This physiological change would be expected to combine with known age-associated increases in L-type calcium channel conductance and calcium release from intracellular stores to result in higher calcium levels in hippocampal neurons of aged rats (19⇓⇓–22). The rhesus monkey brain in stereotaxic coordinates (2000) Google Scholar 28. 3 B–D). The 23 species of macaques inhabit ranges throughout Asia, North Africa, and Gibraltar. *P < 0.05. The brains of the monkeys are considered a delicacy, and they are thought to be a cure for impotence. Additionally, both within and between brain regions, aged neurons can exhibit striking differences in excitability. 2017-10: New 3d viewer: in addition to the wholebrain surface viewer, a per-region mesh viewer is under way. Localization of higher frequency sounds occurs primarily through interaural intensity difference calculations in the lateral superior olivary (LSO) nucleus (74⇓⇓⇓–78). Because cognitive problems arise relatively late in the progression of these diseases, some participants considered to be aging normally may actually have undetected pathophysiological brain markers during the period when behavioral testing is conducted (5). Importantly, the number of a specific type of interneuron expressing the neuropeptide somatostatin was positively associated with memory function in aged rats (25). The June 2018 release is out. Each voxel in the atlas is a cube 150 um on a side. A critical aspect of the experiment was to correctly evaluate wakefulness in the two monkeys used in the experiment, dubbed Monkey R and Monkey W. “We modeled our assessment of wakefulness in monkeys on clinical measures that are used to assess coma patients or patients that are undergoing anesthesia,” Redinbaugh told Gizmodo. In neuroimaging analysis of macaques, brain extraction or skull stripping of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a crucial step for following processing. As a result, histological experiments aimed at quantifying the number of neurons expressing calcium binding proteins (CaBPs) were conducted throughout the central auditory system. Notice the striking differences in the size and convolution complexity of the cerebral cortex across the 3 species. Another observation in hippocampal circuits of aged rats is that there are significantly fewer inhibitory cells both within CA3 and the hilar region of the dentate gyrus compared with younger animals (25). To do so, they designed a stimulation method that mimicked the way brain cells act in the central lateral thalamus during the waking state. Research aimed at uncovering therapeutic approaches to alleviate the impact of presbycusis necessitates an animal model with an auditory system that anatomically and functionally approximates that of humans as closely as is possible. 5A) and hippocampal commissure, both fiber tracts associated with hippocampus connectivity, were better able to discriminate stimuli with overlapping features, a cognitive process known to require medial temporal lobe circuits. Together, these diffusion tensor imaging data indicate that auditory processing abilities and medial temporal lobe-dependent cognition become associated across an animal’s lifespan due, in part, to differential structural alterations to white matter in the temporal versus frontal lobes. This suggests that the relationships between the fractional anisotropy of hippocampus-associated white matter tracts and hearing function were not due to general changes in white matter systems across the aging brain. Spooky-sounding new research had monkeys seeing shapes that weren’t real, thanks to brain implants. Since most CaBPs operate as intracellular calcium buffers (67), the greater expression of these proteins in the auditory system of older animals has been proposed to reflect cellular response mechanisms to the potentially pathophysiological environment associated with greater calcium levels. (D) CA3 SOM neuron densities were significantly negatively correlated with CA3 baseline firing rates. 2A). Experiments in macaque monkeys provide critical insights into age-associated changes in cognitive and sensory function. 4). Reprinted with permission from refs. Together, these findings indicate that auditory function is specifically associated with the structural composition of medial temporal lobe-associated, but not frontal lobe-associated, white matter. A number of factors may drive the observed associations between white matter composition of specific brain regions and sensory and cognitive function during aging (90). 2018-05: After 9 years of operation, ran broken link detector on the Scalable Brain Atlas ecosystem and fixed 40 issues. From February 2001 through May 2019 colloquia were supported by a generous gift from The Dame Jillian and Dr. Arthur M. Sackler Foundation for the Arts, Sciences, & Humanities, in memory of Dame Sackler's husband, Arthur M. Sackler. Adult and aged monkeys underwent a test of object recognition memory. Brain stimulation device lets monkeys 'see' shapes without using eyes. With respect specifically to a calcium homeostasis approach, there is evidence that CaBP expression differs considerably between the auditory systems of primates and rodents. Observations of central auditory system hyperexcitability led to the hypothesis that some aspects of presbycusis may result from altered calcium dynamics in aged auditory neurons that could lead to cell dysfunction and excitotoxicity that disrupts network function. Stimulating this small brain region, which is located deep in the forebrain, caused anesthetized monkeys to suddenly wake up and be alert, despite the fact that anesthetic drugs were still being administered. Human neuroimaging has revealed a specific network of brain regions—the default-mode network (DMN)—that reduces its activity during goal-directed behavior. PRC firing rates were not different between age groups. The calcium hypothesis of brain aging posits that excess intracellular calcium levels in aging hippocampal cells result in altered cellular metabolism, gene expression, and neurotransmitter release that may ultimately result in mnemonic impairment (18, 23, 24). Older monkeys showed drastic auditory processing deficits relative to adults despite auditory thresholds and visual system function not being different between age groups. That said, the scientists used a dozen ceramic skull screws and dental acrylic to “affix head implants” on the monkeys, among other severely invasive measures required for the experiment, some of which were designed to immobilize the heads of the monkeys during EEG readings. We thank Michelle Albert for assistance with the graphics. This similarity in cortical function between humans and old-world monkeys suggests that brain networks supporting volitional communication have a common evolutionary origin that arose well prior to the hominin radiation. This might be achieved either by finding a means to abolish hyperexcitability or by enhancing built-in cellular mechanisms that aged auditory neurons appear to employ to help maintain a healthier intracellular state in the face of pathophysiology elsewhere in the system. While cortical neurons are not lost with age, unbiased stereological assessments indicate that there is a 30 to 60% decrease in prefrontal cortical synapse density with age (34), and that both excitatory and inhibitory synapses are vulnerable (35). 59, which is published under CC BY 3.0. For example, a generational effect sometimes encountered in human cognitive neuroscience is differential exposure to technology, such as expertise with computers, between generations that can cause older individuals to perform more poorly than younger people on tasks, regardless of their actual cognitive status (6). One location along the ascending auditory pathway where these interspecies differences are clear is within the superior olivary complex (SOC) in the ventral brainstem. Recent public concern about nonhuman primate research has made it imperative to attempt to clearly articulate the potential benefits to human health that this model enables. Materials and Methods. The authors declare no conflict of interest. Despite the apparent preservation of synapses in the dentate gyrus of aged monkeys, the density of perforated synapses in the outer molecular layer of this region was significantly associated with recognition memory accuracy (40). Because MCPH1 is a key gene for neurogenesis, one of the expected phenotypic outcomes in the transgenic monkeys would be a larger brain, which was not the case in this study. Knowing how it makes people unconscious is an important step in making anesthesia safer.”. Adapted by permission from ref. This fascinating result is providing new clues about the brain and how it produces conscious awareness—insights that could potentially lead to therapies for patients trapped in a coma. Evidence from an animal model of normal aging, Hilar interneuron vulnerability distinguishes aged rats with memory impairment, Reduction of hippocampal hyperactivity improves cognition in amnestic mild cognitive impairment, Memory impairment in aged primates is associated with region-specific network dysfunction, Neurobiological bases of age-related cognitive decline in the rhesus monkey, The effects of aging on area 46 of the frontal cortex of the rhesus monkey, The effects of age on the cells in layer 1 of primate cerebral cortex, Morphological analyses of the brains of behaviorally characterized aged nonhuman primates, Preserved number of entorhinal cortex layer II neurons in aged macaque monkeys, Preservation of hippocampal neuron numbers in aged rhesus monkeys, Age-related changes in prefrontal cortex of Macaca mulatta: Synaptic density, Synapses are lost during aging in the primate prefrontal cortex, Selective changes in thin spine density and morphology in monkey prefrontal cortex correlate with aging-related cognitive impairment, Effects of age on axon terminals forming axosomatic and axodendritic inhibitory synapses in prefrontal cortex, Topographical organization of the entorhinal projection to the dentate gyrus of the monkey, Preservation into old age of synaptic number and size in the supragranular layer of the dentate gyrus in rhesus monkeys, Synaptic correlates of memory and menopause in the hippocampal dentate gyrus in rhesus monkeys, Increased action potential firing rates of layer 2/3 pyramidal cells in the prefrontal cortex are significantly related to cognitive performance in aged monkeys, Neuronal basis of age-related working memory decline, Aging alters dendritic morphology, input resistance, and inhibitory signaling in dentate granule cells of the rhesus monkey, Protection of auditory receptors and neurons: Evidence for interactive damage, The Aging Auditory System, Springer Handbook of Auditory Research, Further observations on the pathology of presbycusis, Age-related changes in the response properties of cartwheel cells in rat dorsal cochlear nucleus, Age-related changes in the inhibitory response properties of dorsal cochlear nucleus output neurons: Role of inhibitory inputs, Inhibitory neurotransmission, plasticity and aging in the mammalian central auditory system, Alterations of GABAA receptor subunit mRNA levels in the aging Fischer 344 rat inferior colliculus, GABAA receptor binding in the aging rat inferior colliculus, Responses of young and aged rat inferior colliculus neurons to sinusoidally amplitude modulated stimuli, Reduced GABA(A) receptor-mediated tonic inhibition in aged rat auditory thalamus, Stimulus-specific adaptation in auditory thalamus of young and aged awake rats, Diminished cortical inhibition in an aging mouse model of chronic tinnitus, Hierarchical and serial processing in the spatial auditory cortical pathway is degraded by natural aging, Age-related neurochemical changes in the rhesus macaque inferior colliculus, Age-related neurochemical changes in the rhesus macaque superior olivary complex, Auditory peripheral influences on calcium binding protein immunoreactivity in the cochlear nucleus during aging in the C57BL/6J mouse, Age-related increases in calcium-binding protein immunoreactivity in the cochlear nucleus of hearing impaired C57BL/6J mice, Presbyacusis and calcium-binding protein immunoreactivity in the cochlear nucleus of BALB/c mice, Age-related changes in calbindin and calretinin immunoreactivity in the central auditory system of the rat, Changes in parvalbumin immunoreactivity with aging in the central auditory system of the rat, Age-related neurochemical changes in the rhesus macaque cochlear nucleus, Parvalbumin increases in the medial and lateral geniculate nuclei of aged rhesus macaques, Calcium-binding proteins in the nervous system, Viewpoint: The core and matrix of thalamic organization, Calbindin D-28k and parvalbumin in the rat nervous system, Introduction to the superior olivary complex, The lateral superior olive: A functional role in sound source localization, Neural mechanisms of encoding binaural localization cues in the auditory brainstem, Integrative Functions in the Mammalian Auditory Pathway, Springer Handbook of Auditory Research, Interaural time sensitivity in medial superior olive of cat, Microelectrode study of superior olivary nuclei, Topographic organization of the olivocochlear projections from the lateral and medial zones of the superior olivary complex. Visual information processing and auditory thresholds were not associated with any aspect of cognition tested. One important translational implication of this work is the suggestion that age-related episodic memory decline may be alleviated by manipulating the function of specific interneuron subtypes to rebalance local network activity. These anatomical differences between species are thought to reflect the drastically different acoustic sensitivities of primates and rodents. 1). Additionally, the shape and organization of the other olivary nuclei are very different in the rat compared with monkeys and humans. Lifespan extensions reflect one of humanity’s most remarkable and underappreciated cultural accomplishments as the growing group of older individuals is one of few natural resources not diminishing. Interspecies differences in the chemical composition of different brain regions highlight that not all aspects of brain physiology are the same across species. First, it might be the case that embryological and developmental differences between the frontal and temporal lobes predispose each region to succumb to distinct risk factors associated with brain aging. Consistent with this prediction, normalizing excess neural activity in human participants using an anticonvulsant medication does partially rescue cognitive performance in patients with mild cognitive impairment (26). Based on acoustic sensitivity, the auditory system of mice should utilize calculations of interaural intensity differences in the LSO more so than the primate auditory system, which should utilize interaural time difference calculations in the MSO to a greater extent. Numerous studies, first in rodents (both rats and mice) and then in macaques, have demonstrated that the number of neurons expressing CaBPs changes across the lifespan at multiple levels of the ascending auditory pathway (58⇓⇓⇓⇓⇓⇓⇓–66). Unfortunately, public awareness of the importance of nonhuman primates in neuroscience research as a whole, and their importance in aging research in particular, is limited. Understanding the primate brain at a similar level of detail is facilitated by optogenetics in the macaque monkey—a model organism with a brain structure similar to humans that can be trained to perform complex behavioral tasks. Both nonhuman primates and rodents have been used for these purposes, although critical species differences between the 2 species make monkeys a far superior animal model of the human auditory system. Additionally, axospinous, axosomatic, and axodendritic spine sizes appear to increase with age in the prefrontal cortex, and the extent of these structural changes in superficial cortical layers was significantly associated with performance measures on an object recognition task (36, 37). Animals were euthanized first by sedation using ketamine and dexdomitor, followed by deep anesthetization using pentobarbital and phenytoin, and then were perfused transcardially with 4% (wt/vol) paraformaldehyde in phosphate buffer. 5 D–F) or anterior commissure. In the study, researchers used functional magnetic resonance imaging, or fMRI, to observe brain activity in eight humans and two macaques during … This study provides a within-animal link between age-associated declines in a molecularly defined population of inhibitory cells and principal cell excitability in older hippocampal networks. 2C). Despite evidence dating back several decades to suggest that individuals with poorer sensory function are more likely to have cognitive problems later in life, the neurobiological processes responsible for these associations have not been a subject of intense research (79⇓⇓–82). Such differences obtained from in vitro versus in vivo electrophysiological recording experiments highlight the impact that modulation from external neuronal networks can have on firing patterns in awake-behaving animals. A relatively understudied aspect of brain aging is the impact that sensory decline has on cognitive function in older people. These observations indicate that neurochemical changes occur within the central auditory system in response to a reduced acoustic drive from the periphery. These characteristics allow different aspects of brain function to be tested with similar or even identical tests as those used in humans. Nobody likes the idea of experimenting on animals. A few functional imaging studies in older humans have shown compensatory recruitment of certain auditory, frontal, and temporoparietal brain regions when older people listen to human speech, even in subjects with clinically normal hearing thresholds (85⇓⇓⇓–89). Furthermore, these electrophysiological changes were significantly associated with performance on an object recognition task (41). Max Planck scientists discover brain cells in monkeys that may be linked to self-awareness and empathy in humans. Whether the reduction observed reflects cellular degeneration or a biochemical down-regulation of the neuropeptide somatostatin remains an open question. These measures included such things as the monkeys opening their eyes, making purposeful reaches, moving their faces, and showing responsiveness to touch, explained Redinbaugh. In terms of the ethics involved, “University of Wisconsin-Madison Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee approved all procedures, which conformed to the National Institutes of Health Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals,” the authors wrote in the paper. Anatomical studies in aging macaques have provided substantial evidence that the total number of neurons in the prefrontal cortex (28⇓–30) and medial temporal lobe (31⇓–33) does not change across the lifespan in the absence of neurodegenerative disease. “This would pave the way for a similar stimulation paradigm to be used in the clinic,” said Redinbaugh. The use of animal models in brain aging research has led to numerous fundamental insights into the neurobiological processes that underlie changes in brain function associated with normative aging. 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